Shintoism

Shintoism

Shinto at a glance The essence of Shinto is the Japanese devotion to invisible spiritual beings and powers called kami, to shrines, and to various rituals. Shinto is not a way of explaining the world. What matters are rituals that enable human beings to communicate with kami. Kami are not God or gods. They are spirits that are concerned with human beings they appreciate our interest in them and want us to be happy - and if they are treated properly they will intervene in our lives to bring benefits like health, business success, and good exam results. Shinto is a very local religion, in which devotees are likely to be concerned with their local shrine rather than the religion as a whole. Many Japanese will have a tiny shrinealtar in their homes. However, it is also an unofficial national religion with shrines that draw visitors from across the country. Because ritual rather than belief is at the heart of Shinto, Japanese people don't usually think of Shinto specifically as a religion - it's simply an aspect of Japanese life. This has enabled Shinto to coexist happily with Buddhism for centuries.

Shinto at a glance (continued) The name Shinto comes from Chinese characters for Shen('divine being'), and Tao ('way') and means 'Way of the Spirits'. Shrine visiting and taking part in festivals play a great part in binding local communities together. Shrine visiting at New Year is the most popular shared national event in Japan. Because Shinto is focused on the land of Japan it is clearly an ethnic religion. Therefore Shinto is little interested in missionary work, and rarely practiced outside its country of origin. Shinto sees human beings as basically good and has no concept of original sin, or of humanity as 'fallen'. Everything, including the spiritual, is experienced as part of this world. Shinto has no place for any transcendental other world. Shinto has no canonical scriptures. Shinto teaches important ethical principles but has no commandments. Shinto has no founder. Shinto has no God. Shinto does not require adherents to follow it as their only religion.

Shintoism: Beliefs

Kami Shinto is based on belief in, and worship of, kami. The best English translation of kami is 'spirits', but this is an oversimplification of a complex concept - kami can be elements of the landscape or forces of nature. Kami are close to human beings and respond to human prayers. They can influence the course of natural forces, and human events. Shinto tradition says that there are eight million kami in Japan.

Concepts of Kami Shinto belief includes several ideas of kami: while these are closely related, they are not completely interchangeable and reflect not only different ideas but different interpretations of the same idea. Kami can refer to beings or to a quality which beings possess. So the word is used to refer to both the essence of existence or being-ness which is found in everything, and to particular things which display the essence of existence in an awe-inspiring way. But while everything contains kami, only those things which show their kami-nature in a particularly striking way are referred to as kami. Kami as a property is the sacred or mystical element in almost anything. It is in everything and is found everywhere, and is what makes an object itself rather than something else. The word means that which is hidden. Kami have a specific life-giving, harmonizing power, called musubi, and a truthful will, called makoto (also translated as sincerity). Not all kami are good - some are thoroughly evil.

Kami as 'God' The idea that kami are the same as God stems in part from the use of the word kami to translate the word 'God' in some 19th century translations of the Bible into Japanese. This caused a great deal of confusion even among Japanese: the Shinto theologian Ueda Kenji estimated in 1990 that nearly 65% of entering students now associate the Japanese term kami with some version of the Western concept of a supreme being. The next section shows that kami are actually very different from the Western concept of God.

Kami as beings The concept of kami is hard to explain. Shintoists would say that this is because human beings are simply incapable of forming a true understanding of the nature of kami. To make understanding easier kami are often described as divine beings, as spirits or gods. But kami are not much like the gods of other faiths: Kami are not divine like the transcendent and omnipotent deities found in many religions. Kami are not omnipotent. Kami are not perfect - they sometimes make mistakes and behave badly. Kami are not inherently different in kind from human beings or nature - they are just a higher manifestation of the life energy. an extraordinary or awesome version. Kami do not exist in a supernatural universe - they live in the same world as human beings and the world of nature

Kami as beings (continued) Kami include the gods that created the universe, but can also include: The spirits that inhabit many living beings Some beings themselves Elements of the landscape, like mountains and lakes Powerful forces of nature, like storms and earthquakes human beings who became kami after their deaths The term kami is sometimes applied to spirits that live in things, but it is also applied directly to the things themselves - so the kami of a mountain or a waterfall may be the actual mountain or waterfall, rather than the spirit of the mountain or waterfall. Not all kami are sufficiently personalized to have names - some are just referred to as the kami of suchand-such a place. Three types of kami are particularly important: Ujigami, the ancestors of the clans: in tribal times, each group believed that a particular kami was both their ancestor and their protector, and dedicated their worship to that spirit Kami of natural objects and creatures, and of the forces of nature The souls of dead human beings of outstanding achievement

Beliefs

Is Shinto a Religion? The nature of Shinto as a faith should not be misunderstood. Shinto is often called the 'Japanese religion', and has been a big influence on Japanese culture and values for over 2000 years. But some writers think that Shinto is more than just a religion - it's no more or less than the Japanese way of looking at the world. Because ritual rather than belief is at the heart of Shinto, Japanese people don't usually think of Shinto specifically as a religion - it's simply an aspect of Japanese life. This has enabled Shinto to coexist happily with Buddhism for centuries. Shinto is involved in every aspect of Japanese culture: It touches ethics, politics, family life and social structures, artistic life (particularly drama and poetry) and sporting life (Sumo wrestling), as well as spiritual life. Many events that would be secular in the West involve a brief Shinto ritual in Japan - for example, the construction of a new building would involve a Shinto ceremony. Although most Japanese follow many Shinto traditions throughout life, they actually regard themselves as being devoted to their community's local shrine and kami , rather than to a countrywide religion. So many Japanese don't think that they are practicing Shinto nor are followers of the Shinto religion, even though what they do is what constitutes actual Shinto, rather than official or academic Shinto.

Coexistence with other Religions Today many Japanese mix Buddhism and Shinto in their lives; something that can't be done with more exclusive religions like Christianity or Islam. About 83% of Japanese follow Shinto, and 76% follow Buddhism (1999 figures). Although early Christian missionaries were hostile to Shinto, in more recent times it was seen by some Christians as so different from their own faith that they were willing to allow Japanese Christians to practice Shinto as well as Christianity. (For example, a Vatican proclamation in 1936 allowed Japanese Catholics to participate in Shinto ceremonies, on the grounds that these were merely civil rites of "filial reverence toward the Imperial Family and to the heroes of the country".

Purity in Shinto Purity is at the heart of Shinto's understanding of good and evil. Impurity in Shinto refers to anything which separates us from kami, and from musubi, the creative and harmonizing power. The things which make us impure are tsumi - pollution or sin. Human beings are born pure Shinto does not accept that human beings are born bad or impure; in fact Shinto states that humans are born pure, and sharing in the divine soul. Badness, impurity or sin are things that come later in life, and that can usually be got rid of by simple cleansing or purifying rituals. The causes of impurity Pollution - tsumi - can be physical, moral or spiritual. 'Tsumi' means much the same as the English word 'sin', but it differs from sin in that it includes things which are beyond the control of individual human beings and are thought of as being caused by evil spirits. In ancient Shinto, tsumi also included disease, disaster and error. Anything connected with death or the dead is considered particularly polluting.

Beliefs about the Universe Shinto does not split the universe into a natural physical world and a supernatural transcendent world. It regards everything as part of a single unified creation. Shinto also does not make the Western division between body and spirit - even spirit beings exist in the same world as human beings. Visible and invisible worlds Shinto does distinguish between the visible world (kenkai) and the invisible world (yukai), but the invisible world is regarded as in some way an extension of the everyday world, and not a separate realm. Kami and the universe Kami provide a mechanism through which the Japanese are able to regard the whole natural world as being both sacred and material. Kami include gods and spirit beings, but also include many other things that are revered for the powers that they possess. Oceans and mountains are kami, so are storms and earthquakes.

History

Divinity of the Emperor Many cultures have attributed divinity or significant spiritual gifts to their rulers. The rulers of ancient Egypt and Rome were treated as gods, and medieval kings (including England's Henry VI) were regarded as having the ability to cure diseases with the royal touch. The Japanese concept of the divinity of the Emperor is often misunderstood by Westerners. Neither the Emperor nor most of his people ever thought that the Emperor was a God in the sense of being a supernatural supreme being. From the 6th century onwards it was accepted that the Emperor was descended from the kami (in this context gods), was in contact with them, and often inspired by them. This didn't make him a god himself, but rather imposed on him the obligation of carrying out certain rituals and devotions in order to ensure that the kami looked after Japan properly and ensured its prosperity.

History (continued) Status of the Emperor in Japanese history For most of Japanese history, the Emperor's status as the direct descendant of the founding kami was not reflected in his political power. Until the Meiji restoration the Emperor had little power, and was a largely unknown and ceremonial figure. Japan was actually run by feudal noblemen, and the Emperor lived in seclusion, and sometimes in actual imprisonment. The Emperor after the Meiji restoration It's been suggested that the divinity of the Emperor was one of the central tenets of the Meiji restoration but this isn't true; none of the official Meiji documents actually declare that the Emperor was kami or god. The divine status of the Emperor did become a general assumption during World War II, but as a vital element of the Japanese patriotic understanding of themselves as a nation rather than a theological reality. Other teachers referred to the Emperor as being worshipped as a god, without ever saying that he was god. The Emperor as akitsu mikami During the 1930s there were some who taught that the Emperor was akitsu mikami ('manifest god') a human being in which the property of kami nature was perfectly revealed, but they qualified this by saying that the Emperor was neither omniscient or omnipotent. However the Emperor's qualities of kami nature together with his direct descent from Ameratsu, the highest of the kami, made him so superior that the Japanese thought it entirely logical that people should obey the Emperor and worship him – but it did not make him God in the Western sense. The end of divinity When the Emperor gave up his divinity on the orders of the USA, in the Imperial rescript of 1 January 1946, he in fact gave up nothing that he had ever had, but simply restated an earlier traditional set of beliefs about the Imperial family.

Shinto and nationalism Shinto cannot be separated from Japan and the Japanese, but in the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries Shinto became an established state religion, inextricably linked to the cause of Japanese nationalism. The link between Shinto and nationalism Shinto legend tells that the emperors of Japan are descended in an unbroken line from the first Emperor, Jimmu Tenno, AmaterasuOmikami's great-grandson. The native Japanese people themselves are descended from the kami who were present at the founding of Japan. This story contains a very clear message that Japan is an old country, whose people are descended from the founding kami, and an Imperial family with an unbroken line of descent from Amaterasu herself. The Imperial family is older than the people of Japan, and descended from a kami of higher rank. The political message of the story is that Japan is the way it should be, that its survival depends on maintaining the relationship between the Emperor and his people, and that the Emperor rules Japan because the gods want him to. Before the Meiji Restoration and the creation of State Shinto, this story was just one myth among many, and not something crucial to Japanese self-image. Religion and politics In the 6th century Buddhism was imported into Japanese religious life and Buddhism and Shinto together began to play a part in Japanese government. The Emperor and court had to perform religious ceremonies to make sure that the kami looked after Japan and its people. A court liturgical calendar was developed. Over the next few centuries Buddhist influence in government grew stronger. The 17th century was dominated by state-imposed Buddhism (with many Shinto elements) as a reaction against an outside threat posed by Christian missionaries. Japanese civic religion in the 17th century still included elements of Confucianism, while popular religion consisted mainly of Buddhism and Shinto. There was a movement towards a purer Shinto during the next two centuries, culminating in the Meiji Restoration towards the end of the 19th century, when Shinto became the established religion of Japan for a time.

Festivals Shinto festivals - Matsuri Oshogatsu (New Year) Seijin Shiki (Adults' Day) Haru Matsuri (Spring festivals) Aki Matsuri (Autumn festivals) Shichigosan Rei-sai (Annual Festival)

Places Shinto shrines A shrine (jinja) is a sacred place where kami live, and which show the power and nature of the kami. It's conventional in Japan to refer to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples - but Shinto shrines actually are temples, despite not using that name. Every village and town or district in Japan will have its own Shinto shrine, dedicated to the local kami. The Japanese see shrines as both restful places filled with a sense of the sacred, and as the source of their spiritual vitality - they regard them as their spiritual home, and often attend the same shrine regularly throughout their lives. Shrines need not be buildings - rocks, trees, and mountains can all act as shrines, if they are special to kami. A large shrine can contain several smaller sub-shrines. Shinto shrines can cover several thousand acres, or a few square feet. They are often located in the landscape in such a way as to emphasize their connection to the natural world, and can include sacred groves of trees, and streams. Various symbolic structures, such as torii gates and shimenawa ropes, are used to separate the shrine from the rest of the world. Some major shrines have a national rather than a local role, and are visited by millions of people from across Japan at major festivals. Japanese people don't visit shrines on a particular day each week. People go to the shrine at festival times, and at other times when they feel like doing so. Japanese often visit the local shrine when they want the local kami to do them a favor such as good exam results, a good outcome to a surgical operation for a relative, and so on.

Places (continued) Yasukuni The most controversial Shinto shrine is at Yasukuni and honors 2.5 million Japanese soldiers, including convicted war criminals such as former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, who was executed after World War II. Yasukuni - which means 'peaceful country' - was founded in 1869 under the orders of Emperor Meiji and is dedicated to the souls of all those who have fallen in battle for Japan since that time. Within the shrine the souls of the dead are worshipped rather than just remembered. They are referred to as deities who have sacrificed their lives for the making of modern Japan. Surrounded by war banners and military regalia, they are venerated by the hundreds of thousands of visitors who attend the shrine each year to pay homage to them. Controversy over Koizumi's visits The 2001-2006 Japanese Prime Minister, Junichiro Koizumi, sparked argument after argument when he insisted on visiting the Yasukuni shrine every year. He refused to offer an explanation or stop visiting the shrine, causing tensions with China and South Korea.

Places (continued) Itsukushima The main building of Itsukushima shrine, in the town of Miyajima on Itsukushima Island, Hiroshima Prefecture, is believed to have been built in the 6th century. The dramatic torii (gate) of Itsukushima is one of Japan's most popular tourist attractions, and the view of the gate in front of the island's Mount Misen is classified as one of the Three Views of Japan. At high tide, the torii appears to float on the water. Itsukushima is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Because the foundations are underwater and the building is frequently battered by storms (including a major typhoon in 2004); repair and maintenance is a continual process.

Shinto Worship

Shinto Worship Shinto worship is highly ritualized, and follows strict conventions of protocol, order and control. It can take place in the home or in shrines. Although all Shinto worship and ritual takes place within the patterns set when the faith was centralized in the 19th century, there is much local diversity. The spirit of Shinto worship In keeping with Shinto values, Shinto ritual should be carried out in a spirit of sincerity, cheerfulness and purity. Shinto worship and the senses Shinto ritual is intended to satisfy the senses as well as the minds of those taking part, so the way in which it is carried out is of huge importance. Shinto ceremonies have strong aesthetic elements - the setting and props, the sounds, the dress of the priests, and the language and speech are all intended to please the kami to whom the worship is offered. Private and public worship Although Shinto worship features public and shared rituals at local shrines, it can also be a private and individual event, in which a person at a shrine (or in their home) prays to particular kami either to obtain something, or to thank the kami for something good that has happened.

Shinto Worship (continued) Worship at home Many Japanese homes contain a place set aside as a shrine, called a kami-dana (kami shelf), where they may make offerings of flowers or food, and say prayers. The kami-dana is a shelf that contains a tiny replica of the sanctuary of a shrine, and may also include amulets bought to ensure good luck (or absorb bad luck). A mirror in the center connects the shelf to the kami. If a family has bought a religious object at a shrine they will lay this on the kami-dana, thus linking home to shrine. Worship at a shrine There is no special day of the week for worship in Shinto - people visit shrines for festivals, for personal spiritual reasons, or to put a particular request to the kami (this might be for good luck in an exam, or protection of a family member, and so on). Worship takes place in shrines built with great understanding of the natural world. The contrast between the human ritual and the natural world underlines the way in which Shinto constructs and reflects human empathy for the universe. The journey that the worshipper makes through the shrine to the sanctuary where the ritual takes place forms part of the worship, and helps the worshipper to move spiritually from the everyday world to a place of holiness and purity. The aesthetics (or to put it over simply, the 'look') of the shrine contribute substantially to the worship, in the way that the setting of a theatre play contributes significantly to the overall drama. Although Shinto rituals appear very ancient, many are actually modern revivals, or even modern inventions.

Rituals Jichinsai - Ji Matsuri Jichinsai are ceremonies held before the construction of a building (business or private) in Japan. The aim is to purify the ground, worship the local kami and pray for safety during construction. Norito Norito are Shinto ritual prayers that are addressed directly to the kami during formal ceremonies. They are recited by a priest on behalf of the worshippers. The norito are spoken in formal Japanese phrases of great beauty. Shinto believes that certain words have spiritual power if properly spoken, and this style of language is used because of a belief that using these 'beautiful', 'correct' words will bring about good During the State Shinto period formal prayers were laid down by the government, but priests can now use any appropriate prayers - or can compose their own. Norito include the yogoto, which is a blessing specifically for the preservation of the imperial reign. The Nakatomi no yogoto is pronounced on the day of the emperor's accession to the throne.

Rituals (continued) Typical ritual The conventional order of events in many Shinto festival rituals is as follows: Purification - this takes place before the main ceremony Adoration - bowing to the altar Opening of the sanctuary Presentation of food offerings (meat cannot be used as an offering) Prayers (the form of prayers dates from the 10th century AD/CE) Music and dance Offerings - these are symbolic and consist of twigs of a sacred tree bearing of white paper Removal of offerings Closing the sanctuary Final adoration Sermon (optional) Ceremonial meal (this is often reduced to ceremonial sake drinking)

Ethics in Shinto Note: Because Shinto coexists with Buddhism and Confucianism and their ethical values, it's hard, and not very useful, to isolate the distinctly Shinto elements in Japanese ethics. Confucian values in particular have inspired much of the Japanese ethical code. No moral absolutes Shinto has no moral absolutes and assesses the good or bad of an action or thought in the context in which it occurs: circumstances, intention, purpose, time, location, are all relevant in assessing whether an action is bad. Good is the default condition Shinto ethics start from the basic idea that human beings are good, and that the world is good. Evil enters the world from outside, brought by evil spirits. These affect human beings in a similar way to disease, and reduce their ability to resist temptation. When human beings act wrongly, they bring pollution and sin upon themselves, which obstructs the flow of life and blessing from the kami. Things which are bad Things which are usually regarded as bad in Shinto are: things which disturb kami things which disturb the worship of kami things which disrupt the harmony of the world things which disrupt the natural world things which disrupt the social order things which disrupt the group of which one is a member

Texts in Shintoism

Texts Shinto holy books The holy books of Shinto are the Kojiki or 'Records of Ancient Matters' (712 CE) and the Nihon-gi or 'Chronicles of Japan' (720 CE). These books are compilations of ancient myths and traditional teachings that had previously been passed down orally. The Kojiki was dictated by Heida no Are to the scribe O no Yasumaro on the orders of the Emperor Temmu. The holy books are not exclusively Shinto The dates are very significant, since by the 8th century, when they were compiled, Japanese religious life had received considerable input from Buddhism and Confucianism, both of which colored the contents of these books. Political purpose Some of the myths have a very clear political purposes. In a wide sense, they are intended to establish the primacy of Japan and the Japanese over all other countries and peoples and in a narrow sense, to give divine authority to the ruling classes of Japan, and to some extent to establish the political supremacy of the Yamato clan over the Izumo clan. Moral purpose The myths teach a number of truths: Japan and its people are chosen and special to the gods (kami) the kami have many qualities in common with human beings the kami are very different from God in the Western sense the kami have a duty to look after humanity humanity should look after the kami purity and purification are important if humanity is to thrive purification is a creative as well as a cleansing act death is the ultimate impurity